New research appearing in the American Journal of Human Biology suggests that a woman’s reproductive functions may be tied to her immune status. While previous studies have found this same immune and reproductive association in men, this is the first time the association has been found in females.

Beginning by speaking of animals in general, Kathryn Clancy, anthropology professor at the University of Illinois who led the research, said that first and foremost, “an animals energetic resources must be carefully allocated. The body’s first priority is maintenance, which includes tasks inherently related to survival, including immune function.” From there, Clancy said, that any remaining energy is dedicated to reproduction. And due to a “resource allocation” to maintenance and reproductive efforts, often times environmental stressors can lessen the available resources.

In the case of human reproductive and immune system status, Clancy and her team of researchers studied healthy, premenopausal rural Polish women who participated in traditional farming practices. Researchers collected saliva samples and urine samples from each woman during the harvest season, when physical activity levels for each woman were at their highest. They found what previous studies had shown: the highest levels of ovarian suppression occurred during the harvest season due to the fact that the physical work constrains available energetic resources.

Researchers measured each participants’ salivary ovarian hormone levels daily over the course of one menstrual cycle and tested urine samples for levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), which is a common marker of inflammation. But researchers observed a negative relationship between CRP and progesterone in the Polish women: when CRP was high, progesterone was low. Clancy said, “Depending on the other factors that you look at alongside it, CRP can tell you about immune function or it can tell you about psychosocial stress, because CRP has been correlated to both of those things in other populations.” Researchers also found that estradiol and the age when a woman first started menstruating were the strongest predictors of CRP levels.

While Clancy noted that it is still too early on in the research to tell whether or  not these correlational relationships could indicate a causal relationship in which inflammation suppresses ovarian hormones, she does believe that there are two possible explanations for why these inflammations suppress ovarian hormones: “One is that there is an internal mechanism, and this local inflammation drives higher levels of CRP, and that is what’s correlating with the lower progesterone. The other possibility is that there is an external stressor like psychosocial or immune stress driving allocation to maintenance effort, which in turn is suppressing ovarian hormones.”

Clancy believes that her research will help women understand their bodies better — and understand why they reproduce when they do. “From an anthropological perspective,” she said, “these trade-offs are really important because they help us understand the timing of different life events: Why does someone hit puberty when they do, why do they begin reproducing when they do, why do they space babies the way they do? It’s really interesting to see the interplay between a person’s intentions about when and why to have children, and then their own body’s allocations to reproduction or not,” Clancy said.

What do you think of Clancy’s research? Is she right in thinking that our bodies reproduce due to harmony with our immune system?

Plus, more from The Bump:

8 Surprising Facts About Male Infertility

The Vitamins You’ll Need to Conceive

6 Ways to Tell You’re Fertile

When you’re giving yourself a shot of estrogen in a Starbucks restroom or couch-bound for two days straight after being put under anesthesia to have 20 eggs harvested, it’s hard not to feel like you are the only woman alive living through the pain of infertility.

To make it worse, sometimes it feels like each and every woman you pass by has the most perfect baby bump and everyone is pregnant. There are pregnant women standing under street lights and perched near lamp posts, pregnant women hailing a cab on the corner, pregnant woman strolling into and out of every baby shop on the street; hell, even the stop sign seems to be telling you, “STOP trying and it will happen.”

It’s such a 21st century cliché to cry, “Everyone else is pregnant except me!” But in the thick of treatment, there is no persuading yourself otherwise. I remember at one point in our own infertility journey texting my husband a list of about 14 girls I knew on a very close basis who were all pregnant, punctuating the message with a self-pitying “WHY NOT ME?” (I’m sure my plummeting self confidence and a deep sense of despair were incredible turn-ons.)

But once you allow yourself to open up, you find that you’re not at all as alone as you felt. For me, the moment I begin speaking about our struggle, women leap out of the woodwork, revealing their own battles to me. Perhaps it’s an age thing: More of us are waiting to have children, or maybe it’s a result of chronic environmental insults: Crop-enhancing pesticides, air and water teeming with pollution, canned tomato sauce brimming with fertility-sapping BPA. As one of my acupuncturists once opined, “You think hick girls living on the family farm in Arkansas are having trouble getting pregnant? Of course not.”

This week is National Infertility Awareness Week. Whether you are in the midst of a #CLOMIDFAIL, en route to @injectable_drugs or about to post a pic of your IVF baby’s 12-week ultrasound to Facebook, please know that you are not alone. For every woman who conceives on her honeymoon, another needs gobs of help to make it to her babymoon or is hunkered down on an adoption waiting list, eager to meet her beautiful child.

Despite the fact that you have received three baby shower invites in the past week and the cover of People features a 64-year-old actress and her newborn twins, remember that there are hundreds of thousands of other women lurk in the shadows, quietly chugging FertiliTea while en route to their morning ultrasound to see how thick their uterine lining has bloomed overnight.

Don’t be afraid to talk about it — like an HCG test, there is strength in numbers.

Did you share your journey to conceive with others?

Plus, more from The Bump:

Infertility Warning Signs

How to Deal When Everyone Else Is Pregnant (and You’re Still Trying)

How Much Fertility Treatments Cost

In a teaser for the coming episode of Kourtney and Kim Take Miami, it’s little sister Khloe Kardashian-Odom who steals the show (and as usual, our hearts). The always outspoken, spunky and 100 percent daring Kardashian lets the light shine on her personal life and her struggle to conceive.

While talking with her stepbrother, Brandon Jenner, and his wife, Leah Felder, Khlo opens up about just how long she and her basketball star husband, Lamar Odom, have been trying to conceive. She says that they’ve been trying for a baby, “Since I married Lamar,” on September 27, 2009 — almost four years ago.

Since then, Khloe admits that they’ve tried fertility treatments but just recently decided to try their luck at conceiving a child naturally. “About a year ago, we were like, ‘Let’s just see what happens.’ And then when it didn’t happen, Kim was like, ‘Let’s go to the doctor,’ Khloe tells them.

And while there has been so much speculation surrounding her fertility issues, Khloe clears the air on what doctors suggested for her, and how she’s moving forward. “I found out I don’t ovulate,” she says, “and my my uterus lining isn’t thick enough and I have to take pills to make my uterus lining thicker. If that doesn’t get thicker, then I cannot carry a baby.”

Let’s pretend for a second that Khloe isn’t a super celebrity. She’s just a woman trying to conceive and struggling to do it. But since she is a celebrity (and, mind you, the only Kardashian sister I can stand), I can see how frustrating it must be that her pregnancy has almost become public policy. I feel for her, especially since her sisters are building and growing their families, too, while her struggle to conceive continues on. But, to give her credit where credit’s due, I think it’s uplifting to her and other women that she’s remained honest, optimistic and positive — a task not easy to do. And I think she could become a spokeswoman for other women who struggle to conceive and feel alone in the process.

Even big sister Kourtney, mama to Mason and Penelope, struggles to bring up the topic to with Khloe. She said, “I overhear Khloe talking about her pregnancy drama, and she never really talks to me about it anymore. I kind of don’t really ask her, because I don’t want to always bother her. It just makes me sad that she has to struggle with getting pregnant.” It actually makes me sad, too.

Did you struggle to conceive? Was it hard to stay positive?

Plus, more from The Bump:

How Much Fertility Treatments Cost

High-Tech Ways to Conceive

After months of trying to conceive, time spent with your partner can be lacking romance and losing its spark. Spontaneity is likely to be on the decline and replaced by calculated times of “intimacy.” Not being able to complete the task of becoming pregnant can be frustrating and draining for the both of you. That’s exactly why it’s important to keep the health of your relationship a priority. Take time to nurture your family’s foundation and work on being a fun, safe, and comforting partner for your spouse.

Here are a few ideas:

1. Keep dating each other. You are together for a reason – you fell in love and enjoy each other’s company. So prove it! Don’t stop dating now that you are married or your schedule is busier. Maybe it’s the stress of trying to conceive that is wearing on you? While TTC your mind is likely focused on the many reasons you want to be entering parenthood, but in the meantime force yourselves to find reasons why you can love the season you are in and take time to enjoy it.

2. Build safety. Take time to be open with your partner about the frustrations of TTC. Create a safe place for you to share with each other. Be mindful that everyone deals with stress in unique ways and understand that your partner may deal with TTC in a different way than you are. Also, it might be beneficial to share with family, friends, or a licensed counselor if the burden of TTC feels too heavy for you both to carry alone.

3. Be spontaneous. If you have been TTC for at least a few months, it’s likely your calendar has become a rigid schedule of ovulation dates and temperature charting. It pretty much goes without saying that regular scheduling of your intimate time together isn’t exactly sexy. So, take a break! Maybe it’s a month of not charting at all (gasp!). You might feel like you are losing time and wasting a month, but your marriage is worth it.

4. Before midnight feedings and teething there were romantic dinners and movie dates. When your family of two grows into a family of three or more, it will still have the two of you as a foundation. Through this potentially rough season for your relationship, keep your foundation strong.

How have you kept your relationship a top priority?

Plus, more from The Bump:

11 Things to Avoid When Trying to Conceive

The Biggest Trying to Conceive Turn-Offs

Secrets to Getting Through Trying to Conceive

If you personally do not have experience with a complicated pregnancy or difficulty trying to conceive, talking to someone dealing with those issues can be intimidating. While I believe it’s 100% okay to share your life and experience, you may want to consider being sensitive to the struggles of others.

Here are a few dos and don’ts when it comes to potentially uncomfortable conversations:

Don’t avoid sharing your experience. If you are currently pregnant and have a friend who is TTC (trying to conceive), don’t avoid sharing your excitement and fears. The last thing someone who is TTC wants to feel is isolated from friends who are moms or soon-to-be moms.

Do consider the feelings of others. While it may be appropriate to share your experience with friends who are TTC, consider your tone when talking about pregnancy symptoms. Believe it or not, but someone who is TTC, very well may desire to experience morning sickness, gaining baby weight, and kicks in the ribs. Besides, you’ll have a happier pregnancy if you can laugh through these moments instead of complaining.

Don’t avoid the conversations. It’s likely your friend who is TTC really dislikes feeling isolated. If there’s an elephant in the room in the form of your pregnant belly, don’t avoid talking about it. Just don’t make it the only thing you talk about.

Do say “I’m sorry that you are going through this.” Feeling compassion for others is a part of life. Whether you are pregnant, already a mom, or not even thinking about having kids, don’t be afraid to express your sympathies.

And lastly…

Do ask questions about her life and really listen. On average, a person listens for 7 seconds during a conversation before interjecting. Give your friend more than 7 seconds. Make sure to dedicate some of the conversation to how she is doing without automatically relating it to your life.

What should you say to your TTC friends?

Plus, more from The Bump:

The Worst Things to Say to Someone Who Is TTC

Top Five Worst Things to Say to a Pregnant Woman

The Worst Things to Say to Moms of Preemies

I’m a firm believer in sharing your story with others. For my husband and I, it has been the recent struggle of trying to conceive (TTC) for a year and a half. Now I’m nine months pregnant and anxiously waiting the day I get to meet my little girl. But I don’t want to forget what those 18 months felt like and how that is a part of my story.

Here are a few things I considered before sharing my experience with TTC:

Why share your story – I believe that connecting with others is a wonderful and powerful part of life. Being vulnerable with others is how we connect and deepen our appreciation of life and of each other. For myself, I chose to “go public” with our story of struggling with conception after my husband and I became pregnant. Because I openly shared, friends and acquaintances shared personal stories with me and I learned that story wasn’t a lonely one.

Who to share your story with – Maybe you don’t feel comfortable with your personal business going “Facebook live.” Think through who you are comfortable sharing your story with. I advise discussing it over with your partner before either of you decide to share it with anyone. You might decide to limit telling a few close friends and family, or decide that you want to be a mouthpiece for TTC and open the discussion within your circle and social network.

How to share your story – Maybe you’re a writer, like myself, and blogging is the natural way to share. But maybe you’re not. Share your story in the way you feel most comfortable. If you are best communicating face-to-face, share with those as it comes up in conversation. Are you gifted in arts or photography? However you are skilled, consider using it to tell your story.

My hope is that if you are TTC and haven’t shared your feelings with anyone yet, this article would encourage you to share with those family and friends who you find appropriate. One thing about struggling with TTC is you are not nearly as alone as it feels and you shouldn’t feel ashamed or embarrassed by your struggle.

If you struggled or are currently struggling with TTC, how are you sharing your story?

It can be a trial to be trying to conceive. When my husband and I married, we had decided to wait a year before trying for a munchkin. One year and one month after tying the knot, I was staring at a positive pregnancy test! Since family knew that we were going to wait the year to start trying, we told them right away that we were expecting.

This go around, it hasn’t been nearly as quick. We started trying again right after my son was born and I got the “all clear” from my doctor at my six-week postpartum check up. My son is almost eight months old and I’m not pregnant yet. Obviously (since I blog here — and quite publicly!) many people know that it’s our desire to have more children and to not waste much time. So we get questions every so often on how it’s going.

Many women do keep their “trying to get pregnant” status more quiet than I have. For good reason. It can be annoying to be asked. Sometimes, you can feel like people are looking at you and analyzing body changes: “Is that a baby bump or just a big lunch?” It can be emotionally difficult to say “No baby yet.” Even worse is the people who give you suggestions like “Just have a few too many glasses of wine — that’s what got my girlfriend pregnant!” or “Just relax and it’ll happen!” I would have to say that the worst is when I-hope-they-mean-well people ask “What’s the problem? Don’t ya know what causes a baby?” Like you’re just dying to tell them the intimate details of your personal life…

And if you let people know that you’re trying, it gets even trickier once you know you’re pregnant, but aren’t quite ready to tell everyone. Should you lie? Skirt the truth? I can very easily see why many women don’t tell anyone that they are trying to get pregnant. For me, I haven’t minded the questions. Too much. So far, everyone has been very kind and they haven’t been too nosy. But I’ll be honest — I didn’t expect to be here. I expected to have an eight-month-old and have another well on its way. I didn’t expect to try for longer than a month or two. So, it’s frustrating. But really, I’m embarrassed. The reason it’s embarrassing is because I was just so sure that I wouldn’t be here. Here, with an eight-month-old and no second baby in sight. Embarrassing because I was so sure that it wouldn’t be me that would struggle to get pregnant. Embarrassing because I was just so prideful and self-confident over something that I (apparently) have little control over!

The truth is that I had unrealistic expectations. Maybe I just got lucky with getting pregnant so quickly with my son. Maybe things are still a little ‘off’ since my pregnancy. Maybe things have changed with my body and I’ll need to seek fertility help eventually (it’s still too early for that). The fact is that you just never know how long it will take.

I’m not sure that I’d do anything different though — I don’t regret telling people that we want more children and want them soon. Next time, though, I’ll set expectations better. Expectations with other people, telling them “This could take a while,” but more importantly, expectations with myself!

How did you decide whether or not to tell people that you were trying to get pregnant?

Live for today. If I could go back and give myself advice two years ago, that would be it. It took my husband and me about a year and a half to conceive. After a few months of “let’s just see what happens,” the reality that this would take longer than we anticipated set in.

Every day was equated to how many days until I could take a pregnancy test, how many days until my next cycle, how many days it’d been since we’d started trying, how many days pregnant I would be if it happened the first month.

After a while, I wanted nothing more than to float through my schedule until a day I would find out news.

Here are a few things that helped me though each grueling two-week wait:

Have an active state of mind. When your life turns into a perpetual countdown, it’s tempting to set yourself on cruise control and coast through until the next milestone. I’d recommend discovering something that makes you happy, inspired, and encouraged and finding time to enjoy it each week. Personally, I started an online craft shop that allowed me to have a creative outlet. Fill your week with events and activities that fulfill you, instead of just passing time.

Learn to be thankful. You’ve heard this before, and even though it has become cliché it doesn’t make it any less true — you have plenty to be thankful for! The temptation to focus on what we don’t have enough of – money, time, etc. – can easily take over during this draining time of TTC. Take an active role in battling this stress by reminding yourself of what you’re thankful for.

Love the season you’re in. Take time to enjoy life exactly where you are. Maybe it’s a work schedule that’s ideal. Maybe it’s a specific time of the year. Maybe all of your family is living in one state. Whatever it is, celebrate this season of your life!

What has helped you get through your two-week wait while TTC?

When there’s something that you’re looking forward to and desire, you just naturally think about it. You can’t help it. Pregnancy is no exception. For me at least, when you’re trying to get pregnant, it’s on your mind all.the.time. It’s like hoping that Christmas will be coming, but not being certain exactly when it will be here. For close to the last three years (except when I’ve been pregnant), I’ve taken my basal body temperature to determine where I am in my menstrual cycle. I’ve already gushed about how much I love having that information — from a purely practical stand point.

While charting gives a woman the information that she need to be smart about trying to conceive, it also gives her information on how to obsess about pregnancy. Because, let’s be honest: just about every woman who is trying to get pregnant is going to obsess (to some degree) about the process! Today, I’ll introduce you to Conceiving Connie, who is hoping to get pregnant.

Early in her cycle

Conceiving Connie thinks: “I didn’t get pregnant last month. I guess I won’t have a June baby, after all. That’s too bad as my nephew was also born in June and maybe they could have shared a birthday. But I think a July baby would be great!”

Conceiving Connie does: She’ll go through a minor grieving process, coming to terms that she won’t be having a baby in the next nine months. She adds in Ovulation Predictor Kit (OPKs) this cycle, just to ensure timing is right.

Getting closer to ovulation

Conceiving Connie thinks: “Okay, we’re getting close. On this OPK, does this line look darker than the control line? It’s darker than yesterday, but is it dark enough? Is this temperature high enough to indicate a spike?  I just felt a twinge on my left side. Could that have been an egg that just released, like, five seconds ago?”

Conceiving Connie does: Starts using OPKs.  Makes sure she and Conceiving Charlie are having sex every other day.  Gets real vigilant on taking her temperature every day.

Confirming ovulation

Conceiving Connie thinks: “Oh, that was enough of a temperature spike. Ovulation confirmed! Here we go!”

Conceiving Connie does: Looks up her estimated due date to see when the baby would be due if she was pregnant. Looks and her (and Conceiving Charlie’s) timing to see if it was good. Rests in the fact that what’s done is done and she can’t change it now.

Post-ovulation

Conceiving Connie thinks: “Oh, I think I just felt a little cramp! Could that have been implantation? There was a tiny bit of blood — was that implantation? My breasts are a little sore — is that pregnancy hormones or PMS? If I’m pregnant, how should I tell Conceiving Charlie that he’s going to be a father? When can I start taking a pregnancy test? I don’t want to get a negative test just because I’ve tested too early.”

Conceiving Connie does: Monitors her body for any possible sign of pregnancy, even though it’s likely too early to have any. Continues to take her temperature, watching for lows and highs. Looks for ways to take her mind off peeing on that pregnancy test. Can’t resist the pressure any longer, so she starts taking tests about 10 days post-ovulation. Tries to be optimistic without setting herself up for major disappointment. Is either thrilled when she gets a positive test or gets disappointed when she gets her period and starts over the next month.

All that thought — and that’s if that cycle is normal! If Conceiving Connie wasn’t charting, she’d still be spending her time thinking about getting pregnant, but she wouldn’t know what to think about. Should she be fighting off the desire to take a test or is it okay to take a test? Should she still be focusing on timing intercourse well? What should her obsession be focused on?

I know that obsession and overly worrying about conceiving isn’t helpful, but it’s human nature. So I Conceiving Connie like it when I Conceiving Connie can obsess with a purpose!

Did you obsess while trying to conceive? If so, about what?

When it comes to in vitro fertilization (IVF) there are potential risks: ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome, stress and, now, birth defects, but for some families, the fertility procedure may be their only hope for conception.

This past weekend, researchers at the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) National Conference and Exhibition reported that  IVF may increase birth defect risk, especially in the heart, eyes, reproductive organs and urinary systems.

The study, conducted by scientists from the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), analyzed birth defects among infants conceived both via IVF and naturally in California. The group included 4,795 IVF babies and 46,025 naturally conceived babies. After controlling for other factors that can cause birth defects, such as mother’s age and race, the scientist found that 9 percent of the IVF-born infants had defects compared to 6.6 percent of babies who were conceived naturally.

The scientists, however, didn’t discover why the treatment can lead to birth defects. Some say it could be linked to the cause of infertility, but they have yet to find a solid reason.

Dr. Lorraine Kelley-Quon, the study’s lead scientist and a general surgery resident at Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, says that this information isn’t meant to scare potential IVF patients. Rather, it is meant to inform them.

“For parents considering in vitro fertilization or other forms of assisted reproductive technology, it is important that they understand and discuss with their doctor the potential risks of the procedure before making a decision,” Kelley-Quon says.

And for some who long for a child, the reward may outweigh the risk.

Would the IVF risks prevent you from having the procedure?

Plus, more from The Bump:

Weird TTC Terms – Decoded

How Much Fertility Treatments Cost

8 Surprising Facts About Male Infertility